Critical Discussion Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Critical Discussion - Essay Example In discussing the influence of educational pioneers from social and political points of view, Ornstein takes positions as a progressivist on one hand (New-tone) and a postmodernist (Ultra-New-Tone) on the other. The arguments are centered around the effects of education, reflected in the society and the above quote, is used to support Mr Ultra-New-Tone's radical position. Michel Apple's statement may be understood to mean that, schools and other institutions of Education have a significant control over the social and economic systems, within which they operate. The justification for this is, schools are knowledge centers and their primary responsibility lies in the proper dissemination of knowledge. Most of child's life is spent in the school and what is taught here shapes their behaviors in the social system that they otherwise live in. The phrase 'cultural capital', can be used to encompass various types of knowledge, skills, talent etc, the possession of which provides a certain status in the society (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cultural_capital). It can be thought of as the tangible and intangible effects of culture on the Society. In proposing that there are inequities in culture capi... It can be thought of as the tangible and intangible effects of culture on the Society. In proposing that there are inequities in culture capital, just as there is an 'unequal distribution of economic capital', Apple seems to imply that the current systems of education are the reasons why the inequalities exist and hence they need to change so that they can be overcome. Ornstein has used this implication in his argument supporting the radical view, that a revolutionary change in the system is required and that the focus be shifted from one of ranking and testing to one of freedom in learning. The basis of the arguments by the radicals stems from the fundamental belief that: the conservative philosophy in Education is too objective to be democratic whereas the radicals subjective approach broadens the scope of 'standards' and lends itself to be an ideal equalizer. The postmodernists also hold that continuous and rapid change is necessary to adapt to the exponential growth, in information that the contemporary generation is forced to keep pace with. According to Ornstein, what is implied by Michael Apple's rather dramatic statement that 'schools ... shape our lives and take control over us', is that 'in the technological societies' that we live in, it is imperative that, radical reforms are made with an immediate sense of urgency. The Postmodernists versus the Educational Pioneers and Progressivism The debate about whether radical reform is required, to narrow the perceived inequality in distribution of knowledge or if this can be better achieved by adhering to time-tested principles laid out by educational pioneers can be conducted on various planes: (1) Effect that

The Readers Response To The Novel Essay Example for Free

The Readers Response To The Novel Essay Written by Mary Shelley in 1816, Frankenstein is a novel that conveys several messages and themes. It was written at a time of social and political upheaval: the incredible advances in science and movements in art and culture were changing the way people lived dramatically. For example, the use of electricity, the French Revolution and the Romantic Movement, were leading people to have totally radical, bohemian lifestyles. Shelley allowed these revolutionary ideas to move and inspire her, enabling her to write one of the most remarkable and intriguing pieces of literature in the world. In the novel, Shelley uses three narrators: Robert Walton; Victor Frankenstein; and the monster, or modern Prometheus, as he was intended to be. The purpose of this essay is to explore what effect this has on our response to the novel overall. I shall do this by explaining how they affect our understanding of the main themes of the novel; the complex time and structure; and the narrators as characters. Mary Shelleys classic novel discusses three major themes: ambition and its consequences; the importance of family; and community and isolation. Victors horrific tale shows how blind ambition and ruthlessness can destroy you morally and physically. This happens to Victor as he loses everything dear to him and eventually his own life. Upon hearing Victors story of death and revenge, suffering and loneliness, Walton gives up his own ambition of discovering the North Pole, realising that he has sacrificed his sister for his obsession with success. Thus he is saved before it is to late. Victor on the other hand has caused his own downfall: he becomes so obsessed with his creation that he neglects his family by refusing to go home when Elizabeth writes to him. This ultimately leads to the deaths of his family, Justine and William are killed in the monsters fit of revenge, and his suffering and loneliness begin to devour him. The theme of the importance of family is reinforced throughout the novel. From Victors idyllic childhood, My mothers tender caresses, and my fathers smile of benevolent pleasure while regarding me, are my first recollections, to the monsters grief at his fathers death, close family relationships are regarded as precious and wonderful. This may be because Shelley lost her own mother when she was very young, and used her own personal experience to inspire her. Both Walton and Victor take their relationships with their sisters for granted, sacrificing them to pursue their own dreams. Victors experience shows that you cant have both: your family and your career to flourish. This idea id introduced very early in the book, when Victors departure to university is delayed by the death of his mother from Scarlet Fever.

The role and portrayal of Women in the media

The role and portrayal of Women in the media Introduction Media is considered as a traditionally male job and generally it is thought that women journalists can not skip the glass ceiling phenomenon. Pakistan is another minefield of challenges for journalists, especially female journalists. The problem prevails mostly in electronic media scenario as women are making more appearances on screen with the boom of private TV channels. They are considered less prominent. Female journalists working in developed countries are also facing such problems but Pakistani female journalists are in the initial stages towards progress. In Pakistan, with the advent of increasing number of private TV channels, female journalists quite often appear on our television screens. Anchor women, foreign correspondents, and special correspondents are omnipresent in the main broadcast news shows and in current affairs programs. They are considered beautiful and successful women, as well as trend-setters with respect to clothes, make-up and hairstyles. Print journalism, where the physical image is replaced by the reporters name, this phenomenon is much less prominent than electronic media. In spite of the large entrance of female personnel into the professional work of information, women on top of editorial staff are still a scanty minority: this is, however, no different to Western countries. Thanks to television, female journalists have acquired great visibility. Recently The International Womens Media Foundation announced that Rabia Mehmood, a journalist in the Lahore bureau of Express 24/7 Television in Pakistan, has received its 2010-11 Elizabeth Neuffer Fellowship. Mehmood is the sixth recipient of the annual fellowship, which gives a woman journalist working in print, broadcast or online media the opportunity to focus exclusively on human rights journalism and social justice issues. Throughout her career, Mehmood has reported on topics such as womens rights, freedom of speech and political unrest. She has covered the survivors and victims of terrorist attacks, suicide bombings and hostage sieges carried out by militants in Lahore. Mehmood has also reported on internally displaced people who left Northwest Pakistan as a result of insurgency by terrorists and military offensives. But this is not the case of every female journalist. Most of them are assigned to cover social, cultural, soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. With the evolution of time and in order to follow the west, Pakistani media is giving important posts to female journalists but in fact the power still lies in the hands of dominant males. Editorial Boards mostly consist of male members. Gender discrimination in journalism is very distinct and they are given the same benefits as to their male colleagues. Some of the most prominent women working in Pakistani electronic media are Aasma Chuhdry Dr Ayesha Siddiqa Katrina Hussain Bushra Rehman, Najia Ashar Naseem Zehra Saadia Afzaal Sheren Mazari Asma Sherazi Zahida Hina Sana Bucha Sumaira Nadeem Sana Mirza Ayesha Baksh And many more Theoretical Framework Gender Role Theory: Gender role theory posits that boys and girls learn the appropriate behavior and attitudes from the family and overall culture they grow up with, and so non-physical gender differences are a product of socialization. Social role theory proposes that the social structure is the underlying force for the gender differences. Social role theory proposes that the sex-differentiated behavior is driven by the division of labor between two sexes within a society. Division of labor creates gender roles, which in turn, lead to gendered social behavior. The physical specialization of the sexes is considered to be the distal cause of the gender roles. Mens unique physical advantages in term of body size and upper body strength provided them an edge over women in those social activities that demanded such physical attributes such as hunting, herding and warfare. On the other hand, womens biological capacity for reproduction and child-rearing is proposed to explain their limited involvement in other social activities. Such divided activity arrangement for the purpose of achieving activity-efficiency led to the division of labor between sexes. Social role theorists have explicitly stressed that the labor division is not narrowly defined as that between paid employment and domestic activities, rather, is conceptualized to include all activities performed within a society that are necessary for its existence and sustainability. The characteristics of the activities performed by men and women became peoples perceptions and beliefs of the d ispositional attributes of men or women themselves. Through the process of correspondent inference, division of labor led to gender roles, or gender stereotype. Ultimately, people expect men and women who occupy certain position to behave according to these attributes. These socially constructed gender roles is considered to be hierarchical and characterized as a male-advantaged gender hierarchy. The activities men involved in were often those that provided them with more access to or control of resources and decision making power, rendering men not only superior dispositional attributes via correspondence bias (Gilbert, 1998, p.**), but also higher status and authority as society progressed. The particular pattern of the labor division within a certain society is a dynamic process and determined by its specific economical and cultural characteristics. For instance, in an industrial economy, the emphasis on physical strength in social activities becomes less compared with that in a less advanced economy. In a low birth rate society, women will be less confined to reproductive activities and thus more likely to be involved in a wide range of social activities. The beliefs that people hold about the sexes are derived from observations of the role per formances of men and women and thus reflect the sexual division of labor and gender hierarchy of the society. The consequences of gender roles and stereotypes are sex-typed social behavior because roles and stereotypes are both socially shared descriptive norms and prescriptive norms. Gender roles provide guides to normative behaviors that are typical, ought-to-be and thus likely effective for each sex within certain social context. Gender roles also depict ideal, should-be, and thus desirable behaviors for men and women who are occupying a particular position or involving in certain social activities. Put is another way, men and women, as social beings, strive to belong and seek for approval by complying and conforming to the social and cultural norms within their society. The conformity to social norms not only shapes the pattern, but also maintains the very existence of sex-typed social behavior. In summary, social role theory treats these differing distributions of women and men into roles as the primary origin of sex-differentiated social behavior, their impact on behavior is mediated by psychological and social processes including developmental and socialization processes, as well as by processes involved in social interaction (e.g., expectancy confirmation) and self-regulation Social Construction of Gender Difference This perspective proposes that gender difference is socially constructed. This perspective believes that gender is socially constructed. Social constructionism of gender moves away from socialization as the origin of gender differences; people do not merely internalize gender roles as they grow up but they respond to changing norms in society. Children learn to categorize themselves by gender very early on in life. A part of this is learning how to display and perform gendered identities as masculine or feminine. Boys learn to manipulate their physical and social environment through physical strength or other skills, while girls learn to present themselves as objects to be viewed. Children monitor their own and others gendered behavior. Gender-segregated childrens activities create the appearance that gender differences in behavior reflect an essential nature of male and female behavior. Judith Bulter contends that being female is not natural and that it appears natural only through repeated performances of gender; these performances in turn, reproduce and define the traditional categories of sex and/or gender. A social constructionist view looks beyond categories and examines the intersections of multiple identities, the blurring of the boundaries of essentialist categories. This is especially true with regards to categories of male and female that are typically viewed by others as binary and opposites of each other. By deconstructing categories of gender, the value placed on masculine traits and behaviors disappears. However, the elimination of categories makes it difficult to make any comparisons between the genders or to argue and fight against male domination. Feminism, masculinism and religious views Some feminists see gender differences as caused by patriarchy or discrimination, although difference feminism argues for an acceptance of gender differences. Conservative masculists tend to see gender differences as inherent in human nature, while liberal masculists see gender differences as caused by matriarchy and discrimination. History of the struggle of female journalists: Since the 1960s, feminists have argued that it matters who makes it. When it comes to the mass media, who makes it continues to be men. Women working in the media have made some inroads. In 2001, the International Federation of Journalists reported that around the world, 38 per cent of all working journalists are women. Studies conducted by Canadian researchers Gertrude Robinson and Armande Saint-Jean have found that 28 per cent of newspaper editors are female. And according to San Diego State University communications professor Martha Lauzen, 24 per cent of American television producers, writers, and directors are women. Denis Monià ¨re, political analyst and professor at Quebecs University of Montreal maintains that even if the visibility of female journalists has grown in the last ten years, we shouldnt be too quick to shout victory. In 2002, the Canadian Newspaper Association reported that 43 per cent of Canadian newspaper employees are women. However, they account for only eight per cent of editors-in-chief and twelve per cent of publishers. Women employed in the sector tend to work in pink-collar ghettos; they make up 70 per cent of the advertising department, and 80 per cent of the accounting and finance staff. In addition to being un-represented in positions of authority, Monià ¨re thinks women are also under-utilized in covering the subjects considered most important-politics, economy and social trends. And when it comes to the evening news, women are almost invisible. The posting of Sophie Thibault in 2002 as the ten oclock news anchor for the national French-language channel TVA is a first for Canada. Most often, women are consigned to noon-hour shows, local newscasts, fill-ins and weekend spots. However, men continue to occupy approximately 75 per cent of the positions of power in the mass media. The 2001 study conducted by the Annenberg Public Policy Center at the University of Pennsylvania is equally damning. The Center reports that only 13 per cent of the top executives of American media, telecommunications and e-companies are female. And that 13 per cent is not concentrated at the top: women constitute only 9 per cent of the boards of directors for these companies, and they hold only 3 per cent of the most powerful positions. CURRENT SITUATION: Women in Islamic nations are increasingly being heard, seen and listened to, thanks in part to leading female voices determined to make a difference, despite challenges ranging from motherhood to threats on their lives. One of the hostesses of a popular Saudi program called Speaking Softly says that until recently, she did not see people like herself on television. Muna Abusulayman is one of four anchorwomen on the show that deals with various issues in a talk format. Of the four, Abusulayman is the only one who wears a hijab, or headscarf. She is also divorced and lives alone with her child in Saudi Arabia. Women in the Middle East actually make up the majority of anchors and presenters on television. But, Abusulayman says, they are much less prominent behind the scenes and in other media like print and radio. Tasneem Ahmar, who runs a media and advocacy group in Pakistan as well as producing radio programs on womens issues, agrees with Abusulayman. With more than 25 years experience as a journalist, Ahmar says that, not unlike the West, most decision-making jobs, top executive positions, and tough assignments are given to men. Women normally are assigned very soft issues social issues, cultural issues, she said. There are very few women, youll find, who are doing hard political stories or economic stories or current affairs programs. Tasneem Ahmar thinks positive changes for women in the Middle East and the Islamic world are on the horizon. She predicts that a new wave of young women in the Pakistani media will have an impact in five to ten years in her country. These young girls who have come in, theyre very ambitious and theyre very hard working and I dont think anything is going to stop them from going to the top positions. While there is still a lot of work to be done, the women hope that their efforts and successes in the media will inspire not only women but men too. Or maybe there is truth to the old adage, the best man for the job is a woman. One woman in the Middle East who does cover tough stories and speaks out is May Chidiac. She is the host of a Lebanese TV program called With Audacity. Chidiac is known all over the Arab world for her tenacious journalism. A victim of an assassination attempt by suspected Syrian agents, she lost a hand and a leg in a car bombing in September 2005. After numerous surgeries, she went straight back to work. Reporter of an English Newspaper from Dhaka says that in most cases, chief reporters/assignment editors (almost everyone are male) do not assign them something special/important or significant reports. They are still assigned soft stories, days events, or light events. But male journalists get the preference to get a significant assignment, stories which might be lead stories. But the interesting point is that, many female journalists in our country now protesting this kind of attitudes and they are getting serious kind of assignment after fighting with their bosses. In Bangladesh, this is a very new phenomenon to appoint female journalists in electronic media, However, critics pointed that as female is more attractive then male in electronic media, so the media owners appoints the female journalists to attract audiences. About 15 percent female journalists are now working in countrys 11 state and privately run TV channels. On the other hand, in print media, we are very few female reporters are which any working journalist can count within 10 minutes. There are some other sectors of the media where female are more visible then reporting like hazardous and glamorous job for unknown reasons. Anam Istafa, Sub editor, National Herald Tribune openly admits that female journalists are usually assumed to be dumb and so tender hearted for Hard news coverage especially of blasts and natural disasters. She says that very rare females are at the executive positions in media news media business. Most of them usually follow guideline and policies by their male bosses. Policy and decision makers are predominantly men. Despite the increase of womens visibility in media organizations, journalists in South Asia are hardly seen in the decision-making positions. This was one of the several issues highlighted by more than 200 women working in the media from every SAARC country, who came together for the first time in Lahore, Pakistan, for a two-day meeting on Women in Media Challenges, Opportunities and Partnership. Women media persons from Maldives, Bhutan and Nepal pointed out that none of the print media in their country has ever had a female journalist heading the newsroom. Participants from India, Afghanistan, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka raised similar concerns, and also pointed out that man in their media organizations outnumbered women. Most of the participants cited long and difficult working hours, lack of incentives and appreciation to keep women working in the media, fulfilling household obligations and unequal wages as some of the reasons why women in the media are under-represented at various levels in South Asia. These were also some of the reasons why most female media persons, after working for few years, leave the profession for other jobs. Portrayal of women in the media as victims was also discussed extensively. Some of the participants pointed out that women make news in several South Asian news media only when they are victims of conflict, crime, natural disasters or terrorism. However, one of the guest speakers, Pakistans federal information minister, Qamar Zaman Kaira, said: Women journalists play an important role in voicing concerns of the victims in conflict areas, who are often women and children. Some of these victims are more comfortable sharing their experiences with female professionals. He urged women media persons to also take up more serious and hard-hitting issues relating to politics, security and conflict. Senior journalist in Pakistan, Shehar Bano, said at the conference that international research studies indicate transformation in news content brought on by an influx of women into the news media. Issues such as health, education, child care and women workers have gained prominent slots in newspapers, she said. Bandana Rana from Nepal said, however, that there are also many female media persons, who are confined to covering only feature articles on art, culture and lifestyle and very few female reporters are assigned business, economics or political stories. It was resolved during the meeting that female media persons should be given training opportunities to enhance their skills to cover all issues, along with mentorship programmes between senior and junior female journalists. Former Chairperson, Department of Mass Communications at University of Karachi, Professor Shahida Qazi said she is happy that more and more Pakistani women are now joining media. She recalled when in 1966 she had joined Daily Dawn Karachi as a reporter, many people were surprised. She said now more than 70 percent of Karachi University students are women. She said in the Department of Mass Communications, there are more female students than males. Former Secretary Information Department, and TV compere Mehtab Akbar Rashdi said declaration of the state of emergency and curbs on media in Pakistan have shocked journalists, writers and human right activists. She said the dream of gender justice and equality could not materialize until change of mindset in male population. She said even today in the practical field female journalists face many problems due to this dogmatic thinking. Rashdi said steps for empowerment of women should be taken from the home. She said parents should encourage their daughters to get higher education and work in every walk of life. Electronic media in Pakistan is highlighting gender-related issues in a better way in comparison to print media, because more women journalists work in TV channels. Pakistani women have entered the field of journalism after a tough competition. Now women journalists and photographers could be seen working in Pakistani society and it is a welcome change. Association of Television Journalists (ATJ) only has some 50 females among its 700 or so members around the country, but nearly half of them are concentrated in the business capital of Karachi. Women are highly visible in the Pakistani media as anchors and talk show hosts on dozens of private radio and television channels in various regional languages, besides English and Urdu. Women are paid less than their male colleagues for equal work and have to fight harder for the political or other high profile assignments Most identify sexual harassment as their biggest concern, according to Zebunnisa Burki, who has been coordinating South Asian Women in Media (SAWM) EFFORTS /STEPS TAKEN TO PROMOTE ROLE OF WOMEN IN MEDIA Gender Equality Beyond 2005: Building a more secure future for women reporters To mark International Womens Day on 8 March 2005, UNESCOs Director-General, KoÃÆ' ¯chiro Matsuura, launched for the fourth time the global initiative Women Make the News. UNESCO appeals to all media producing daily news to hand over editorial responsibility to women to cast the news on that day. UNESCO Supports Gender in Journalism Awards in Pakistan The Pakistan Press Foundation (PPF) organizes the Gender in Journalism Awards to honour excellence in gender sensitive reporting in the country. UNESCO supports the two awards, each carrying a cash prize of Rs 25,000 (US$ 400), that will be given to Pakistani journalists. One award recognizes models for excellence and best practices in coverage of gender related issues. It is open to both male and female journalists. The second award honours outstanding coverage of any issue by a female journalist. Its aim is to promote role models for women entering or planning to enter the journalism field. Journalists working in print media may nominate their own work, or editors and others may nominate articles that promote the objectives of the awards. Fiji Women Community Radio Initiative femLINKpacific (Media Initiatives for Women), a womens media NGO, launched in 2004 femTALK 89.2FM, a mobile womens community radio project. In January 2005, as a result of the grant of UNESCOs Intergovernmental Programme for the Development of Communication (IPDC), the femLINKpacific is taking the suitcase radio to women in their communities. The aim of the femTALK 89,2FM project is to not only create a new space on the radio waves for community based discussion, but also to provide practical opportunities for women within their own communities to highlight and address issues relevant to them. The main focus of femLINKpacifics range of community media initiatives is women speaking to women for peace. The decision making structures still lack equal representation by women and the capacity of women, especially from the rural population and the poor, to communicate openly on common matters should be increased. International Womens Media Foundation Since its founding in 1990, the International Womens Media Foundation has conducted training programs on five continents, in 26 countries and over the Internet with the goal of strengthening the role of women in the news media worldwide. The IWMF supports women in the media through groundbreaking projects, and innovative research and training designed to help women develop their skills and become leaders in their profession. Since 1990, the IWMF has honored more than 50 extraordinarily brave and hardworking journalists with Courage in Journalism Awards. The only international awards designed to recognize the contributions of women on journalisms front lines, the Courage awards recognize women who have faced physical attacks, prison terms, beatings, rape, and death threats to themselves and their families. Training Women Media Professionals Internews is one of the worlds leading trainers of female media professionals, training more than 25,000 women in media skills since 2003 alone. Internews helps women get on the air and in the newsrooms in societies where their participation has been marginalized, allowing for reporting on all issues-not just womens issues-to be done through the voices of women in that society. Mainstreaming Womens Issues To ensure that the media meet the needs of all audiences, Internews works to foster womens leadership in the media industry so that issues of vital concern to women are mainstreamed, integrated across all programming and not relegated to a niche market. In communities where specific gender issues are underreported, such as gender-based violence or womens health, Internews has developed special programs produced by and for women. Pakistans First Radio Program by and for Women In Pakistan, where only three percent of journalists are women, Internews has worked to increase the number of women working in media, training women at journalism programs established by Internews at universities from Peshawar to Rawalpindi to Balochistan. Internews launched Meri Awaz Suno (Hear My Voice), the countrys first independent syndicated program that features women as both producers and subjects. In 2003, Internews built a state-of-theart independent radio production facility in Islamabad where women journalists are trained in radio reporting and production and work on Meri Awaz Suno. The radio show airs on 19 independent radio stations across the country, and focuses on issues such as politics, education and health. Before Internews training, most reporters working on Meri Awaz Suno had little experience working in radio or journalism. Now they are leaders the first women in Pakistan to work as independent broadcast journalists, and role models for young women. Establishment of Forum Named :Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) The women journalists of twin cities of Rawalpindi and Islamabad formally announced Women Journalists Pakistan (WJP) forum to address professional problems faced by them and find out ways to nurture their skills. The ceremony was organized at the National Press Club, Islamabad in which Javed Akhtar, Director News Associated Press of Pakistan, Absar Alam, Anchor person Aaj TV, Qatrina Hussain, Anchor person Express TV and Fozia Shahid Anchor Person ATV shared their through provoking ideas and views with a large number of female journalists present there. According to WJP members, the body is a non-political and intellectual-based forum that aims to provide platform to working women journalists in the print and electronic media. In addition to raising a collective voice on issues faced by women journalists, the forum will initially focus on two basic aspects networking and facilitating journalists avail media-related career-building opportunities. The WJP hierarchy is: Myra Imran of The News (Convener); Saadia Khalid, The News and Humaira Sharif of APP (Resource persons). Working Group: Ayesha Habib (Dunya TV); Sehrish Majid (Apna TV), Anila Bashir- (Samaa), Asma Ghani (The Nation), Maimoona (Khabrain), Siddrah Bokhari (APP), Naheed Akhtar (APP), Shumaila Noreen (APP), Zahida Mahmood (APP), Ghazala Noreen (News-One TV), Saadia Masood (Rohi TV), Nazia Hameed (Channel 5), Afshan Qureshi (Ausaf), Rukhsana Mussarat (Radio Pakistan), Shazia Seher (Apna TV). The WJP Advisory Board comprises the following: Qatrina Hussain (Anchorperson, Express TV); Absar Alam (Anchorperson Aaj TV); Ghazi Salahuddin (Member Editorial Board, Jang Group of Newspapers); Javed Akhtar (Director News, APP); Muhammad Ziauddin (Executive Editor, The Express Tribune); Shamsul Islam Naz (Secretary General, Pakistan Federal Union of Journalists); Asma Shirazi (Anchorperson Samaa TV); Mazhar Arif (Executive Director, Alternate Media) and Fozia Shahid (ATV). Establishment of Aasha (the Alliance Against Sexual Harrasment) and a code of conduct for workplace WWO is among the civil society organisations which got together a few years ago to form Aasha, the Alliance Against Sexual Harassment (www.aasha.org.pk) in collaboration with the International Labor Organisation (ILO) and Pakistans Ministry of Women Development. Aasha developed a code of conduct for the workplace and a procedure to deal with harassment and discrimination. Geo TV, the largest private television network in Pakistan is among the few media organisations Aasha lists as a progressive employer. Its not necessary for every case to be a federal issue, commented a television producer who worked with Geo when Aasha started. Often the tension arises because of the widespread gender segregation in our society many of these youngsters dont know how to interact with each other. This leads to misunderstandings that the code helps to clear up. Another reason for growing sexual harassment may be that, with education, more people are crossing class barriers. Women coming into journalism earlier were relatively well-connected and self-confident. Many now come from lower-middle class backgrounds and have less confidence. Men find it easier to take advantage of or intimidate them, observed a senior journalist. Problems Faced by Female Journalists (Pakistan) It is an established fact that women are an integral part of the Pakistani media. Professionally, they match their male colleagues and their analytical and investigative skills are quite impressive. With their distinctive approach to political, economic and social issues, women journalists have successfully highlighted the human angle that had previously remained neglected. They have proven themselves, both in the print and the electronic media. Less than a decade ago, there were very few women in journalism. But things have now changed and with the opening of a string of television channels, many new faces have joined in. These motivated girls have been a valuable addition to the Pakistani media. Viewers, readers and listeners, have all appreciated their work. However, unfortunately the working conditions in the media houses have remained unchanged. Low salaries, downsizing, lack of professionalism, non-existence of basic facilities for employees like health, old age benefits etc, no job security and non-conducive work environment in majority of media organizations especially in the Urdu print media are indeed big hurdles. This has greatly affected women journalists because they are often the first ones to become victims of downsizing. Mainly due to social pressures, they cannot work in two or three places like their male colleagues and unlike their male colleagues women are reluctant to seek favors. The constraints they face due to overall environment in media industry become a hurdle in their way to assume journalism as a career but another dimension of this issue is the problems female journalists face within their community the biggest is their continuing struggle to become registered journalists within media bodies. Unfortunately, majority of the women journalists have only been granted associate membership which is actually not regular membership. The condition is worst in under developed areas where women, in most of cases, dont apply for membership. This apparently small problem has long lasting effect on the overall situation of female journalists and their growth in media industry. Due to non-registratio

African American Culture through Oral Tradition Essay -- Essays Papers

African American Culture through Oral Tradition African American folktales have origins rooted in West African literary and cultural forms of expression. When Africans were taken from their homeland and brought to America as slaves, they also brought with them their individual cultures, languages and customs. However, their white slaveholders suppressed this part of their heritage in them. Thus they had to find other ways of expression, mainly story telling and songs. It is incredible to see how African slaves could ever smile and laugh under the horrible and cruel circumstances, which were imposed on them by the brutal slaveholders. The whole body of folktales and spirituals arose from the experiences which slaves had on their plantations mingled with the memories and customs that they brought with them from Africa. They would tell stories using different methods such as acting, gesturing and singing. By these means they were able to elevate storytelling into an art. Most slave owners forbade their slaves from speaking their own language, and forced them to speak English. They were also forbidden from learning to read or write. In this manner slaveholders believed that they were keeping their slaves in ignorance so that they could neither rebel nor escape. They were greatly mistaken for many slaves would make use of their songs and stories to educate their people, and enlighten their minds and free their souls. For example the slave spirituals which they sang were a means with which they could communicate feelings of discontent and of homelessness and exile. However, not all their songs were of disparity and loss. They also sang songs expressing love, joy, and hope. Other than making use of lyrics as a form of expressi... ...Books, Inc; New York, 1963. Hamilton, Virginia. The People Could Fly. Knopf Publishing; New York, 1985. Jones, Gayl. Liberating Voices: Oral Tradition in African American Literature. Harvard University Press; Cambridge, 1991. Okpewho, Isidore. African Oral Literature. Indiana University Press; Bloomington, 1992. Plant, Deborah G. Every Tub Must Sit on It's Own Bottom: The Philosophy and Politics Of Zora Neale Hurston. University of Illinois Press; Chicago, 1995. Radin, Paul, Ed. African Folktales. Shocken Books; New York,1983. Smitherman, Geneva. Talkin and Testifyin: The Language of Black America. Houghton Mifflin; Boston, 1977. Wright, Lee Alfred. Identity, Family and Folklore In African American Literature. Garland Publishing; New York, 1995. -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Ã ¿

Ethical Treatment of Prisoners Essay

Ethical Treatment of Prisoners BY MeltssaoT People in society today have rules, regulations, and guidelines to follow in order to maintain freedom, safety, structure, and self-discipline. If any of these rules are broken, there are consequences to follow. It depends on the severity of the crime on what type of punishment or consequence is given to an individual. If the crime is severe enough the individual may be deprived of their rights, freedom of movement, and sent to prison for a duration of time. If one is sent to prison then the ethical treatment of prisoner’s rights must be taking into consideration and analyzed. A prisoner/inmate is a person that has committed a criminal offence and depending on their criminal history he or she may be put on probation or confined to a county Jail or state penitentiary. Once an individual gets behind those block walls their lives then tend to belong to the deputies, correctional officer or warden that is employed by that facility. Within the prison system there is a division of power that exists. This power can leave feelings of powerlessness and dependency in the prisoners. We all have heard stories of correction officers using their power of authority to abuse and psychologically harm the prisoner. For example a couple of months ago in the state that I live in there was an inmate who was locked up for a minor charge of failure to appear. He was waiting for his dinner this particular evening, and the deputy almost slammed the inmate finger in the door. Of course this escalade into a verbal altercation between the two, and from there a physical fight broke out. The deputy which outweighed the inmate by over 100 pounds picked up the inmate and slammed him on his head onto a concrete floor multiple times until the inmate was unconscious. The Jailhouse officials rush this inmate to the ospital in which he went into a coma, and eventually was placed on life support. The family of this inmate was faced with a difficult situation which was either remove him from life support or leave him there to waste a away. In the end the family made the decision to remove their love one from life support, and the deputy was behind a minor criminal matter the question is did he deserve to be treated less than a human being? Did he really deserve to die? Some people might argue the fact that because he was locked up then he deserved the treatment that he got and others might voice the difference. I personally say no, because this is still a life and even though he made a mistake there should have been a correct way to go about punishment for this inmate if he really had got out of order. When law abiding citizens and correctional officers look at prisoners, it does not matter what the crime was or how severe the punishment, a prisoner is a â€Å"nobody. † In the United States there are many people that may agree and have strong feelings when it comes to this statement. In ethics a utilitarian may say that human beings should focus on the potential rules of an action and determine what would happen if e or she follows the rules. Utilitarian theory states the moral worth of an action should be determined specifically by its usefulness in maximizing utility and minimizing negative utility. The world as a whole has a moral code on how people should conduct themselves, on what is right and wrong. The belief of the utilitarian theory can be used in prisons to help those that really want to be rehabilitated. I am not saying that this theory will work for all, but there are some men and women that deserve another chance in life. We have to realize that everyone makes mistakes n their life, some are worse than others, but in the end everyone still deserves to be treated with dignity and respect, no matter what they may have done. I have heard stories about men that may have raped or killed a little child is sent to prison the correctional officers tend to sometime turn their heads and let the other inmates beat him or rape him until he is almost dead. I don’t agree with the fact that he hurt a child but at the same time I don’t think that its morally right that they allow the other inmates to Jeopardize what little bit of freedom that they may have behind hose prison walls either. The ethical solution to this is when you do have a child rapist sent to prison put those type of people in a area amongst themselves and maybe have counselors around where they can get a better understanding of this person sick mind because sometimes these people that do these type of things have had some type of trauma when they were a child. It is unethical to confine an individual to a correctional facility and expose this individual to danger. When you talk about ethics in prison, in the eyes of some that is either driving by hat facility yard every day or has never really been behind those thick masculine bars then one may say that these people are animals and they deserve to be behind those bars. Once behind those bars their life changes because they have to be told when to eat, when to sleep, when to walk and talk. If an inmate is not like by a correctional officer or if one does not follow order then they may be deprived of food or even yard time. Torture and beatings will not correct their behavior but will make them more aggressive so that choice is not the best. If any of these things should appen then this may lead to riots and in serious scenarios, killing of security guards. It is best to provide the basic needs such as food to the prisoners so that there is a harmonious reaction between the prisoner and the correction officer. The utilitarian would say that inmates should follow a morally right rule that would result in happiness in which once they are return to society they can determine what rules citizens. Learning positive rules will result to good behavior and a change of mind that life without freedom is something that one may not want to return to. In contrast†¦..

Free Essays on Dying with Dignity

â€Å"Dying with Dignity† Understanding Euthanasia By: Derek Humphry I found that this book â€Å"Dying with Dignity† by Derek Humphry, dealt with euthanasia in a very straightforward manner. The subject is a touchy one and Humphry is not afraid to use the word "suicide". What I particularly liked was the fact that he was not trying to convert people to his point-of-view, he just presented the facts and allowed the reader to make choices for themselves. The author also discussed making choices for family members who have lost the ability to make choices for themselves. As part of the author's efforts to help readers put euthanasia in perspective, he also provided statistics so that the reader could compare their own opinions to how others feel about the various aspects of euthanasia. Euthanasia is just another word for â€Å"mercy killing† as some people put it but it also means good death. I look at it as more of a good death if it is performed with the right procedures and if a person has a legitimate reason to be put to death but many people would not agree with me that it should be legal. There are several categories of euthanasia but in general they are all somewhat alike, the kind I think it should be allowed and not looked bad upon to give the doctors that assist in the death is voluntary euthanasia. Their will always be pros and cons of euthanasia but I think that when a person makes the decision themselves and asks a doctor for help it should be legal if the person is mentally stable and has a good reason or reasons to want to end their life. Humphry believes that voluntary euthanasia will become lawful within the next few years. He said on page 164, â€Å" I believe that the right to choose to die with dignity at life’s end is the ultimate civil liberty for a person who has given the matter careful consideration and taken all possible steps to advise others. If we cannot die according to our personal wishes, then we are no... Free Essays on Dying with Dignity Free Essays on Dying with Dignity â€Å"Dying with Dignity† Understanding Euthanasia By: Derek Humphry I found that this book â€Å"Dying with Dignity† by Derek Humphry, dealt with euthanasia in a very straightforward manner. The subject is a touchy one and Humphry is not afraid to use the word "suicide". What I particularly liked was the fact that he was not trying to convert people to his point-of-view, he just presented the facts and allowed the reader to make choices for themselves. The author also discussed making choices for family members who have lost the ability to make choices for themselves. As part of the author's efforts to help readers put euthanasia in perspective, he also provided statistics so that the reader could compare their own opinions to how others feel about the various aspects of euthanasia. Euthanasia is just another word for â€Å"mercy killing† as some people put it but it also means good death. I look at it as more of a good death if it is performed with the right procedures and if a person has a legitimate reason to be put to death but many people would not agree with me that it should be legal. There are several categories of euthanasia but in general they are all somewhat alike, the kind I think it should be allowed and not looked bad upon to give the doctors that assist in the death is voluntary euthanasia. Their will always be pros and cons of euthanasia but I think that when a person makes the decision themselves and asks a doctor for help it should be legal if the person is mentally stable and has a good reason or reasons to want to end their life. Humphry believes that voluntary euthanasia will become lawful within the next few years. He said on page 164, â€Å" I believe that the right to choose to die with dignity at life’s end is the ultimate civil liberty for a person who has given the matter careful consideration and taken all possible steps to advise others. If we cannot die according to our personal wishes, then we are no...

Online Essays

Online Essays Students are having a lot of problem in writing an essay nowadays. With the increasing burden of homework and sometimes, part-time jobs, the students cannot possibly write their own essays. There are students who do not have the ability or time to write their essays themselves. They do not know how to write and what to put into writing. Many students look for essays online. If they copy from a book or website, it is plagiarism. So, what do they do? The answer comes in the form of the numerous online essay writing companies that help students who need guidance in writing their essays. However, this method also has a drawback. Several companies that claim to provide online essays for sale are fraud. They ensnare the students into their traps, loot their money, and waste their time. This is probably one of the few reasons why students are afraid of taking help from online essay writing companies. These companies may spring up anywhere and make false promises for the sake of earning money. They trap students, who are inexperienced in recognizing such online custom essay services. However, we cannot let this reason become a hurdle in their way for essay writing. One can easily save money and prevent the risk by identifying these companies, but how to recognize them? The following points will help you to distinguish between real and hoax companies: 1.  Is the company making too many promises? If so, there is a chance that the company is a fake one. Fraud companies usually make too many promises, as they do not have to fulfill them. 2.  Is the company making too many offers? If the company you are asking for essay assistance is making too many offers, and is trying to give you high (and probably false) hopes, there is a chance that the company is a fraud. 3.  Is the company undertaking too much? If so, think again. The company might be a fraud because many hoax companies promise to do unbelievably large online essays in a short period of time, and ask a lot of money for it, which they usually get. 4.  Is the company willing to give its telephone number and/or address? Fraud custom essay companies have robbed over millions of people, and they definitely do not want to be tracked. A company that does not give full information to the customer about itself has an 80 percent chance that it is a fraud. 5.  Do the company support staff/employs directly talk to you? If no, the company might be a fraud. Fraud companies are normally run by only a few people and do not have many employs. For more information on how you can save yourself from the curse of these fake companies, you can contact our online custom essay writing service where you can get online college essays, online school essays, online high school essays provided by professional online essay writers.

Online Business Issues

Online Business Issues Big Data and eBusiness Relevance Nowadays, more people get to know the term Big Data and try to understand its essence and make use of it to benefit in the chosen activities. According to Yin, Jiang, Lin, Luo, and Liu (2014), Big Data makes it possible to open a new era of science and human abilities to discover it through data-driven computing.  Many scientists and researchers offer their ideas on how to develop the Big Data paradigm and why people need pay more attention to this concept.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Online Business Issues specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More For example, Jao (2014), the CEO of one of the retention automation platform for eCommerce, admits that Big Data is beneficial from a variety of perspectives: it helps to improve business, choose the best advertising, decide on the marketing strategies, control customer retention, etc. It is hard to imagine the world of eBusiness, and eCommer ce in particular, without Big Data. Its impact remains to be huge, and the following examples can prove its urgency.  First of all, the organisation of information can be facilitated. For a long period, different companies have been challenged to collect, save, and keep data from different sources at one place. It was necessary to spend much time analysing each piece of the source chosen. Big Data helps to extract a certain value from data given (Nwokpoku 2015). People, who are involved in eBusiness, win a lot with Big Data concept due to the existing relevance by means of which people can combine data from browsers, social media, and different records and underline those ideas that become more important.  Secondly, Big Data provides business people with an opportunity to make decisions that are more informed and data-driven. The key features of this concept are variability, velocity, variety, and value (Gandomi Haider 2014). They show that each piece of information is a powerf ul combination of different credible facts that may touch upon different spheres of life and help people make fast and properly-grounded decisions. Such ability is necessary for the world of eBusiness; therefore, this relevance cannot be neglected in the analysis. Thirdly, the personalisation of information becomes possible with Big Data. Though some people may think that such general concept with a variety of sources can hardly promote privacy or similar issues, Big Data is created to help sellers observe the changes of users’/consumers’ behaviour and make the necessary connections to realise what can be done more to achieve more efficient results. Finally, it is wrong to believe that Big Data and eBusiness relevance is only about some positive aspects. All people, who are going to use it, should remember that Big Data is a complex mechanism that can work only for those, who know how to use it, when to stop or change a direction, and how to make the correct solutions. Big Data, as well as eCommerce, is a big world of information from different regions. It is so hard to get lost, and people should be ready for any challenge.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More How to handle Big Data for a company As Chief Information Officer (CIO), I want to underline that it is not an easy task to handle Bib Data for any company. Each manager has to be ready to learn a lot and improve personal knowledge constantly because the majority of technical errors happen because of people, who make mistakes, not because of some technological glitches. I want to underline that Big Data should be treated in two different ways: on the one hand, it is a marketing term that involve people, their needs, interests, and offers; on the other hand, it is a technical term because it depends on technologies and the way they can work.  To benefit from Big Data, it is important to pay more attention to a company’s informative lifecycle process. It is not enough to check the quality of information; it is necessary to consider the insights and criticise them on a professional level. The company should have powerful leaders, who can set the goals clearly, choose the most talented managers, who can organise the work with information, and underline the importance of a company as a whole because Big Data is for a team not for one person (McAfee Brynjolfsson 2012). Impact of the Internet on Porter’s 5 Forces Model The sphere of eBusiness undergoes considerable changes because of the Internet and people’s burning desire to use it all the time. Still, the changes are not always positive. The Internet is one of the most unpredictable inventions on the earth, and it is hard to guess if it is a chance or a challenge. As many business models and strategies, Porter’s model undergoes certain changes as soon as the Internet spreads i ts power over people. Though Karagiannopoulos, Georgopoulos, and Nikolopoulos (2005) found out that the Internet did not promote significant changes, and this traditional model can be used for the examination of business and its peculiarities. Porter’s model is a powerful attempt to analyse the world of business with its threats of entrants and substitutes, power of buyers and suppliers, and rivalry that has been developing during a considerable period (Hax 2009). It helps to understand if the company is profitable enough for competitions and investments. The modern world of business depends on how its people can use Porter’s model and choose the most appropriate ways to succeed. At the same time, the modern eBusiness world has been dramatically changed because of the Internet and the opportunities available. Therefore, the impact of the Internet on the Five Competitive Forces remains to be crucial and cannot be controlled by those, who know a little about actual abili ties of the Internet.Advertising We will write a custom report sample on Online Business Issues specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More All business students are provided with knowledge about the Internet’s direct impact on business. Though students spend much time learning and analysing the current opportunities and technological progress, they cannot understand how exactly this issue defines the quality of all work done. Not all business people are ready to compare the possibilities of the past with the possibilities of the future to make the correct decision today. Porter’s model is about the analysis, and if the Internet changes the compositions of the analysis, it will change the essence of the analysis itself. It is wrong to believe that no dramatic changes can happen to the model. It is inappropriate to believe that the change of one aspect can lead to the change of another aspect. It may happen that the Internet can in fluence the bargaining power of buyers or substitutes and has nothing to offer to change the threats of entry. Therefore, the analysis of each dimension is necessary. How the Internet Changes the Game The Internet has enough powers to impact business games modern people are so eager to play day by day and promote economic benefits (Bernard Souza 2009). Even if people do not want to agree with the fact that they are the players that can win or lose one day, all business people want to use their thinking abilities and chances to achieve more (Werbach Hunter 2012). Each dimension of Porter’s model changes because of the power of the Internet to business. The bargaining power of customers and buyers may be considerably increased due to a variety of information available through the Internet. The threat of new entrants and substitute products may be also changed, still, it is hard to predict what kind of changes can be. On the one hand, it is easier to enter a new market with th e Internet because there is no necessity to open a real store or business centre or something else (Morais, Pires, Moreira 2012). It is enough to create a captivating site and make people learn about their possibilities for the services offered. On the other hand, people can get access to many e-business companies that can offer the same services at more reasonable prices. Therefore, the level of substitutes and abilities of business players can be dramatic for each other. The peculiar feature of the Internet is its ability to create unexpected outcomes and influence the whole system in the most unpredictable way. And if Porter’s model has been always about something that is expected and can be explained, it cannot stay this way because of the Internet opportunities for people, who develop e-business.Advertising Looking for report on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The rivalry achieves a new stage because of the Internet as well. People have to think how to spread their services and offers globally. It is not enough to achieve some local benefits. It is more important to inform as many people as possible to underline the urgency and success of the chosen business. Reference List Bernard, RRS Souza, MP 2009, ‘Dominance in online business games competitions’, Developments in Business Simulation and Experiential Learning, 36, pp. 287-294. Gandomi, A Haider, M 2014, ‘Beyond the hype: big data concepts, methods, and analytics’, International Journal of Information Management, vol. 35, pp. 134-144. Hax, AC 2009, The Delta model: reinventing your business strategy, Springer Science Business Media, Cambridge, MA. Jao, J 2014, ‘Why big data is a must in ecommerce’, The Big Data Landscape. Web. Karagiannopoulos, G.D., Georgopoulos, N. and Nikolopoulos, K 2005, ‘Fathoming Porters five forces model in the in ternet era’, Info, vol. 7, no. 6, pp. 66 – 76. McAfee, A Brynjolfsson, E 2012, ‘Big Data: the management revolution’, Harvard Business Review. Web. Morais, EP, Pires, JA, Moreira, R 2012, ‘E-business maturity: constraints associated with their evolution’, Journal of Organizational Computing and Electronic Commerce, vol. 22, no. 3, pp. 280-300. Nwokpoku, J 2015, ‘Big data: driving e-business through open access’, Vanguard. Web. Werbach, K Hunter, D 2012, For the win: how game thinking can revolutionize your business, Wharton Digital Press, Philadelphia, PA. Yin, H, Jiang, Y, Luo, Y, Liu, Y 2014, ‘Big data: transforming the design philosophy of future internet’, IEEE Network Magazine, vol. 28, no. 4, pp. 14-19.

Bullying in Schools Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions Assignment

Bullying in Schools Causes, Effects and Possible Solutions - Assignment Example It is reported that around 14% of the victims of bullying report poor self-esteem, depression, anxiety and suicidal thoughts as a result of bullying. In addition, there is the stunning revelation that most of the bullying occurs on school grounds (Olweus, 2013). Scholars have identified so many reasons behind bullying and none of these reasons exhibits considerable supremacy. The first cause as identified by people like Rigby (2007) is the family background of the bullies. It is found that the students who belong to families which are dysfunctional have three times more chance to be a bully at school. In addition is the finding that when the children belong to families where there is good parent-child relationship, the chance of becoming a bully is considerably reduced. Moreover, people like Olweus (2013) have observed a link between media and bullying. The children who watch violence in the media for long hours are more likely to exhibit violent behavior and aggression at school. It seems that when children watch violence in media, they fail to learn the socially acceptable ways of behavior and start dealing with day-to-day life in the way they watch in media. In other words, children learn what they observe, and when there is a lot of violence in media, children fail to distinguish between fiction and reality and resort to violence in real life. In the opinion of Olweus (2013), some students are more likely to be bullies because of certain individual characteristics. To illustrate, the ones who are bullies generally have above average physical strength. In addition, they are more aggressive in their behavior and exhibit little compassion towards the sufferings of others. Thus, Olweus (2013) reaches the conclusion that bullying behavior is considerably linked to individual traits. Thus, as the bullies share certain similarities in their physical and psychological makeup, the victims of bullying too exhibit certain common characteristics. For

Discussion Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 67

Discussion - Assignment Example Firstly, to proof own prediction author bases his hypothesis about the possibility of a danger from the â€Å"hostess† program on a case which â€Å"already happened at the University of Colorado† (DeRosa, 2009). Second, calling on personal experience author tells his family history what gives him an opportunity to reveal a historical underground of the problem. Third, â€Å"hostess† program is a symbol for a bigger problem. Author adduces other examples (women in show business etc.) to connect a â€Å"hostess† program to the common modern tendency. â€Å"I have read two news articles in the campus newspaper about recruiting practices that made me a little perplexed†, - DeRosa (2009) speaks about what has reasoned him for writing an article. While coming with the conclusion that â€Å"recruiting practice is an insult to the women of the university† DeRosa (2009) reveals a bigger problem: despite that â€Å"over the last hundred years, women have traveled a rocky road to greater equality†, and for now â€Å"women have made impressive gains in their professional lives†, â€Å"they have also come to be seen, more and more, as objects†. I tend to agree with DeRosa: women’s objectification truly exists in our world. Besides there’re a lot of countries in modern society women rights still aren’t equal to men’s ones. The second version of the article seems to me more socially important than the first one, because it conveys a problem, not only DeRosa’s personal view. DeRosa, S. (2009). The Objectification of Woman. Who’s Fault Is it? In Duane Roen, Gregory R. Glau, and Barry M. Maid (Eds.), The McGraw-Hill Guide: Writing for College, Writing for Life (pp. 217-21). New York:

Effects tillage system, fertilization and crop protection practices on Literature review

Effects tillage system, fertilization and crop protection practices on soil quality parameters - Literature review Example It participates in the C, N, P and S transformations and plays a significant task in the decomposition of xenobiotic organic compounds and the formation of the soil structure. Microbial biomass, C and N and their ratios to the total and light fraction C and N and pools in soils of the organic systems are higher in organic systems than in conventional systems due to the enhanced decomposition of the easily available pool of soil organic matter (SOM) with increasing microbial biomass levels. The higher levels of light fraction organic matter in organically managed soils are from plant residues and manure. The higher microbial biomass in organically managed soils indicates higher quality soil organic matter responsible to nutrient mineralization and short term storage of potentially leachable nutrients indicating comparative advantage of organically managed systems over conventional ones. ... Microbial biomass specific respiration gives the status of the substrate quality and availability in the soil (Insam et al., 1996). Microbial biomass is also used to check the improvement of degraded soils over time and serves as an early indicator of changes in the total organic matter in the soil. Long term cultivation leads to decreased levels of microbial biomass due to dwindled levels of microbial activity and soil organic C pools (Kocyigit, 2008). Higher levels of microbial biomass decrease specific respiration of micro organism, which shows that micro organisms living in low quality soils respond by increasing their specific respiration. 1.1.2 Soil Basal Respiration (SBR) Soil basal respiration is the constant rate of respiration in the soil caused by changes in organic matter levels. The rate of basal respiration in the soil indicates the amount and quality of the carbon source. Basal respiration can be used to analyze the potential of the soil biota to decompose both indigen ous and antropogenically introduced (Bloem et al., 2006). Soil respiration is a key process for carbon flux to the atmosphere. Soil water content, o2 concentration and the bioavailability of carbon are the main factors that regulate soil respiration (Bloem et al., 2006). Soil basal respiration indicates the level of microbial activity in the soil and is positively correlated with biomass activity. It involves the aerobic and anaerobic energy yielding processes where the reduced organic and inorganic compounds are utilized by microbial cells and serve as primary electron donors and oxidized compounds serve as terminal electron acceptors (Bloem et al., 2006). Processes in the soil such as fermentation and abiotic processes release co2. Water is

Child Soldiers Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Child Soldiers - Research Proposal Example soldiers forms a grave issue and the international community with the assistance of international as well as non-governmental organizations should work towards curbing this problem. Child soldiers have been used for conflict by military groups for years because they are considered to be more submissive as compared to their adult counterparts and exist in greater numbers. These young children not only suffer from physical violence but they are also afflicted to psychological trauma and injuries. The child soldiers are used for various purposes ranging from carrying materials to acting as spies and also as combatants (Young 2007). Young girls are raped and Fatmata who was a young child soldier narrated that she was kidnapped when she was 12 years old and she gave birth to the child of her captor. Fatmata and her child were both suffering from AIDs (Wessells 2006). Another child soldier Edward narrated that they were first asked to kill the victims and then forced to lick their blood. Edward escaped and returned to his village but many young children still suffer in such horrific and inhuman conditions (Mark 2013). The issue of child soldiers needs to be dealt with strategically with the cooperation of national and international forces. Participation of International organizations and non-governmental organizations is also of significance. The plan for putting an end to child soldiers should basically work around five key points: resolution of the issues which have led to fighting, prevention of kidnapping of young children, better ways of being able to distinguish and isolate the children from the militant groups, â€Å"demobilize, rehabilitate and reintegrate† the children followed by adequate funds and opportunities for the freed child soldiers to study or get trained (Young 2007). The plan for the protection of children from becoming a part of warfare is beneficial and will be of assistance in tackling the issue at its roots. Resolving of the warfare by the

Pampers Health Spa (PHS) Assignment Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

Pampers Health Spa (PHS) - Assignment Example 2325540 =? 2325540 1 – (Variable Cost / Sales)] 1 - 0.499 0.501 Break-even point= ? 4641796.41 (Atrill & McLaney, 2011) Margin of safety % = Current sales level – Break- Even Point Current sales level Margin of safety % = ? 2965000 -? 4641796.41 = (56.55) % (Atrill & McLaney, 2011) ? 2965000 Task 3 Payback period method Proposal 1 The project requires an investment of ?900,000 and it generates cash as follows: ?270000 in Year 1; ?295000 in Year 2; ?345000 in Year 3; ?325000 in Year 4. The payback period is 3 years ?270000+ ?295000= ?565000 in the first two years + ?335000 of the ?345000 occurring in Year 3). Payback period method= ?270000+ ?295000+?335000= ?900,000 ?335000/ ?345000 =0.971 Payback period= 2+0.971=3 years Proposal 2 The project requires an investment of ? 750000 and it generates cash as follows: ?160000 in Year 1; ?189000 in Year 2; ?225000 in Year 3: ?254000 in Year 4. The payback period is 3.7 years ?160000 + ?189000 +?225000 = ?565000 in the first thre e years + ?78000 of the ?254000 occurring in Year 4). ?160000 + ?189000 +?225000 +?78000= ?750 000 ?176000/ ?254000=0.693 Payback period= 3+0.693=3.7 years Accounting Rate of Return Accounting Rate of Return =Average net income / Average investment (Davies & Pain, 2011) Proposal 1: Average net income =90000 + 98000 +75000 + 65000 = 328000/ ?900,000* 100= 36.44% Proposal 2: Average net income = 60000 + 70000 + 95000 + 125000 = 350000/ ?750 000 * 100 = 46.67% Net Present Value methods NPV= -Co + C1/1+r + C2/ (1+r) 2 +†¦+ C n / (1+r) n (Davies & Pain, 2011) -Co= Initial Investment, C = Cash Flow, r = Discount rate, n = Time Proposal1 NPV= ? (900,000) + ?270000 / (1+0.893) + ?295000/ (1+0.797) 2 + +?345000 / (1+0.712) 3+ ?325000 / (1+0.636) 4 NPV= ? (900000) + ? 247865.60176 + ? 91353.8957 + ? 68755.2314+ ? 45368.2506 = ? (446,657.0206) Proposal 2 NPV= ? (750000) + ?160000 / (1+0.893) + ?189000 / (1+0.797) 2 + +?225000 / (1+0.712) 3+ ?254000/ (1+0.636) 4 NPV= ? (750000) + ? 84521.9 229 + ? 58528.4281 + ? 44840.3683 +? 35457.0328 = ? (526652.2479) Total Expenses Fixed cost (70%) Variable cost (30%) ? ? ? Motor Expenses 8900 6230 2670 Insurance 28700 20090 8610 Rates 20400 14280 6120 Premises 1680000 1176000 504000 Wages and Salaries 1445000 1011500 433500 Repairs & renewals 54700 38290 16410 Professional charges 17500 12250 5250 Advertising 67000 46900 20100 Cost of Sales 483700 Total 2325540 1480360 Contribution ratio = Sales/ total variable cost = ?1480360 / ?2965000 =0.499 Task 4: In order to ascertain the financial position of Pampers Health Spa’ (PHS) it is necessary to carry out a financial analysis as it measures the financial performance of the enterprise in terms of profitability, leverage, and liquidity in its operations. As the management of Pampers Health

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Law - Essay Example Giving out Internet user names, email addresses and other identifying information to the authorities exposes them to vulnerabilities of cybercrime such as identify theft or fraud. Furthermore, the law curtails their freedom of expression of freedom online as they know they are exposed. As such, their social life is affected and cannot engage in online dialogue even on issues that are important to them for fear of frustration by the authorities, intimidation, retaliation and harassment. The president argued the FCC to impose rules that enhance net neutrality by regulating the access to the internet. Cable companies should be required to treat all their traffic equally. As such, there will be healthy competition as cable companies cannot give any competitors undue priority over others by charging more or blocking competitor’s access. Critics of moving to Title II and the broadband industry are opposed to the President’s proposal as they term the move as an impediment to innovation and investment. They argue that the proposal will give the regulators too much power and therefore want the proposal to be stopped from implementation. The James Risen case demonstrate that reporters lack â€Å"reporter’s privilege†. This is because they are required to testify their sources. This prevents sources from revealing information to the reporters for they may be imprisoned for leaking information. The shield law has been proposed to address this concern as it will protect reporters from being compelled to disclose their sources. 4(a) Does the First Amendment prohibit judges from issuing restraining orders (â€Å"gag†orders) to stop attorneys, witnesses, jurors and other participants in an ongoing trial from talking about it? For what purpose might judges want to do this? The first amendment limits the application of restraining orders against all people involved in an ongoing case. The limit applies to instances in which the coverage of the

Child Soldiers Research Proposal Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Child Soldiers - Research Proposal Example soldiers forms a grave issue and the international community with the assistance of international as well as non-governmental organizations should work towards curbing this problem. Child soldiers have been used for conflict by military groups for years because they are considered to be more submissive as compared to their adult counterparts and exist in greater numbers. These young children not only suffer from physical violence but they are also afflicted to psychological trauma and injuries. The child soldiers are used for various purposes ranging from carrying materials to acting as spies and also as combatants (Young 2007). Young girls are raped and Fatmata who was a young child soldier narrated that she was kidnapped when she was 12 years old and she gave birth to the child of her captor. Fatmata and her child were both suffering from AIDs (Wessells 2006). Another child soldier Edward narrated that they were first asked to kill the victims and then forced to lick their blood. Edward escaped and returned to his village but many young children still suffer in such horrific and inhuman conditions (Mark 2013). The issue of child soldiers needs to be dealt with strategically with the cooperation of national and international forces. Participation of International organizations and non-governmental organizations is also of significance. The plan for putting an end to child soldiers should basically work around five key points: resolution of the issues which have led to fighting, prevention of kidnapping of young children, better ways of being able to distinguish and isolate the children from the militant groups, â€Å"demobilize, rehabilitate and reintegrate† the children followed by adequate funds and opportunities for the freed child soldiers to study or get trained (Young 2007). The plan for the protection of children from becoming a part of warfare is beneficial and will be of assistance in tackling the issue at its roots. Resolving of the warfare by the

Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words - 6

Law - Essay Example Giving out Internet user names, email addresses and other identifying information to the authorities exposes them to vulnerabilities of cybercrime such as identify theft or fraud. Furthermore, the law curtails their freedom of expression of freedom online as they know they are exposed. As such, their social life is affected and cannot engage in online dialogue even on issues that are important to them for fear of frustration by the authorities, intimidation, retaliation and harassment. The president argued the FCC to impose rules that enhance net neutrality by regulating the access to the internet. Cable companies should be required to treat all their traffic equally. As such, there will be healthy competition as cable companies cannot give any competitors undue priority over others by charging more or blocking competitor’s access. Critics of moving to Title II and the broadband industry are opposed to the President’s proposal as they term the move as an impediment to innovation and investment. They argue that the proposal will give the regulators too much power and therefore want the proposal to be stopped from implementation. The James Risen case demonstrate that reporters lack â€Å"reporter’s privilege†. This is because they are required to testify their sources. This prevents sources from revealing information to the reporters for they may be imprisoned for leaking information. The shield law has been proposed to address this concern as it will protect reporters from being compelled to disclose their sources. 4(a) Does the First Amendment prohibit judges from issuing restraining orders (â€Å"gag†orders) to stop attorneys, witnesses, jurors and other participants in an ongoing trial from talking about it? For what purpose might judges want to do this? The first amendment limits the application of restraining orders against all people involved in an ongoing case. The limit applies to instances in which the coverage of the

A Lesson Before Dying Essay Example for Free

A Lesson Before Dying Essay â€Å"A Lesson Before Dying† takes place in a small Louisiana Cajun community in the late 1940’s. In the novel, Jefferson, a young black man, is an unwitting party to a liquor store shoot out in which three men are killed; being the only survivor, he is convicted of a murder and sentenced to death. To portray this novel Gaines displays respectable literary devices like setting, tone, and characterization; therefore helping I as the reader feel the emotions of Jefferson from his point of view. In the initial setting of the novel, Jefferson sits in a courtroom located in rural Louisiana, which is filled with anger, tension, isolation, and quietness from the people in the room. This setting of the book supports Jefferson’s personality in chapter nine when Jefferson’s character is introduced. Jefferson’s cell could be considered the second setting or Jefferson’s setting in the book. Jefferson’s relationship to the courtroom (initial setting) supports Jefferson’s personality in the prison. He is isolated just like in the courtroom. â€Å"There was an empty cell between Jefferson and the rest of the prisoners† (Gaines 71). Jefferson’s cell was not only isolated like a courtroom in rural Louisiana, but quiet. â€Å"Jefferson’s been quiet . . . He didn’t answer† (Gaines 71). Due to Jefferson’s isolation and quietness, he has built anger inside. An anger which had been building up since the courtroom conviction. â€Å"Nothing don’t matter,† he said looking up at the ceiling. The first setting of the novel is similar to Jefferson’s cell setting. The three settings: The courtrooms, location and time era of the town, and prison all have similarities to Jefferson’s character traits. The court trial scene embodies everything that is contained within the novel. All events that occur throughout the entire novel are a repercussion of Jeffersons court case. These circumstances set up the tone that is simply perceived throughout the novel. Gaines tone in the novel shifts as the novel progresses. Gaines made the novel begin with a pessimism view; everything seemed awful and negative especially the court trial. Gaines shows us this disgust tone by telling us the details of the jury members. The twelve â€Å"white† jury members of the case shows us that Jefferson felt dominated by the whites. As the novel goes on Gaines tone shifts and Jefferson seems more aware and confident, the anger and disgust diminishes the longer Jefferson sits in jail. The twelve white jury members were also Gaines way of showing the dominance, and power of the whites during this ime, only thinking that blacks are only good for working, and is incapable of thinking for themselves Do you see a modicum of intelligence? A trait inherited from his ancestors in the deepest jungle of blackest Africa What you see here is a thing that acts on command. â€Å"(Gaines7). Understanding this time era is important for the tone, and Gaines gives good examples representing the era to the tone. Gainess style is unique because the figurative language that he uses improves the readers mental picture. For example, when Gaines was describing Miss Emma at the beginning of the novel he says she became as immobile as a great stone or as one of our oak cypress stumps(Gaines 36). This allowed me as the reader to picture Miss Emma and the condition that she is in with a mental image throughout the entire novel. He also used figurative language while he describes in chapter fourteen the Louisiana Countryside. Gaines told in great detail the cemetery appearance as Grant walked through and then explain the smells and feelings he has while Grant explores the Sugar Cane Planation with Vivian. The literary devices were greatly put to use by Gaines to explain, and portray his novel to any reader. He has made a novel enjoyable for an audience that may not like reading due to his sarcasm (tone), and figurative language to set up numerous scenes. The settings are a main building block for this novel because the court room and the jail cell is when the story line is put together. Each trial, and everyday described by Gaines about Jefferson in jail puts the novel together into one amazing novel that I will be sure to recommend.

Identity Creation through Body Modification

Identity Creation through Body Modification Body modification  of one sort or another has always been practiced new technologies have opened up the possibility for radical change. This has meant that we can now change fundamental aspects of our bodies most obviously our biological sex, but also racial characteristics, signs of ageing and apparent physical imperfections. Basically will be looking at what it means to want to radically alter the body to believe indeed that we have the wrong body CASE STUDY: NIP TUCK Throughout the dissertation will be exploring the meanings acquired by the body in modern, western societies. In doing so the dissertation will examine the ways in which bodies are shaped, acted upon, represented and experienced. Therefore explore various ways in which the body has been seen as an object (the body we have), as a subject (the body we are) and as a project (the body that we become) and will explore how these processes are intimately linked to regimes of power and knowledge. For example, recent years have seen the increased prominence and significance of various body projects health and fitness, dieting, cosmetic surgery and body modification- alongside many contemporary problems associated with the body new reproductive technologies, genetic engineering, cybernetics, etc. As these examples show, the body in contemporary culture has become a malleable object crucial for the articulation of identities of race’, gender, and sub cultural affiliation. This dissertation will critically examine some of these contemporary trends whilst simultaneously focusing on their social and historical contexts to give us a broader understanding of their meanings and implications. Introduction Body modification has been practiced in many ways and for a variety of reasons since ancient times; it has existed on some level for thousands of years. Historical evidence suggests that red dye extracted from hematite was used to paint the body as many as 20,000 years ago. Archaeological evidence proves that as many as 10,000 years ago, parts of animal bones, animal teeth, and colourful stones were used to decorate the body. Hair combs date back to nearly 5,000 years ago. Water served ancient peoples as mirrors until 4,500, when the first mirror is believed to have been invented (Ehsan, 1999, 49-52). Society has progressed since those early days. One need only turn on the television or leaf through a magazine to be bombarded with all kinds of advertisements for body modification. Chemical treatments can straighten hair and change skin tone and texture. Surgical procedures can decrease or (more often) augment breast size. Penile implants claim to enhance sexual performance. Unwanted fat can be removed in any number ways, ranging from dietary changes to liposuction. Some signs of ageing can be temporarily reversed with injections of Botox; others can be permanently altered, again through surgery. Today in the western world, body modification is widely practiced in all classes of society. Often it is the result of societal pressure to achieve perfection. At times it is a ritual or rite of initiation within a group or social hierarchy. Less often, although this is steadily increasing, the body is modified to change its gender; this is done through surgical procedures supplemented by hormonal and similar supplementary treatments. Women are considered the most frequent targets of this pressure to achieve somatic perfection, and therefore they are the most frequent practitioners of body modification. However, this pressure affects means well. This paper will examine four specific types of body modification: tattooing and scarification; piercing; diet and exercise; and aesthetic surgery. Although these are by no means the only methods of body modification, they are among the most widespread and they cover a wide spectrum. Still, whether it takes the form of a minor dietary modification or an extreme makeover, most individuals in the western world practice some sort of body modification. For this reason, it is a practice which merits close study and consideration. How far will some individuals go in this pursuit for perfection? How much of this will society sanction? What are the implications for our future and that of future generations? These are the questions to be explored throughout the course of this research. Tattoos and Scarification The word â€Å"tattoo† is derived from a Tahitian word meaning â€Å"to mark. â€Å"The act of tattooing is believed to be over ten thousand years old, and it has had a variety of uses throughout history. Tattoos have played an important role in various tribal and cultural rituals. For example, ancient Greeks used them as part of a sophisticated espionage system. Romans used tattoos to clearly mark criminals and slaves. In Borneo, women would have symbols of special skills or talents tattooed on their forearms, thus alerting potential marriage partners of their marketability. Although tattooing has flourished consistently in many cultures, its popularity in western civilization has fluctuated widely. After waning for several centuries, it was reintroduced in the late seventeenth century, but it was not until the late eighteenth century that it once again became widespread, even so, it often had negative associations and tattooed individuals were mostly relegated to the fringes of society, such as freak show oddities and carnival workers. In the 20th century, the art of tattooing waxed and waned as society rapidly changed with the proliferation of new and better technologies. By the late sixties it was still primarily an underground operation, often the provenance of biker groups and criminals. From the late twentieth century until today, however, tattooing has enjoyed renewed popularity as body decoration, and is seen in a much more positive light, often as an art itself. In addition to the more traditional ink tattoos, there are those caused by puncturing and/or burning the skin. In this process, known as scarification, scalpels or cauterizing tools are applied to selected areas of the skin, and the resulting scar tissue is the desired result. Better technology has improved technique and ease of application for all kinds of tattooing; in addition, more sanitary conditions have lessened the risk of diseases such as hepatitis. These two points have no doubt contributed to the revival and renewed respect for the practice of tattooing. However, as it will be discussed, changes in attitudes toward the body have also played a part in its reawakened popularity. Body piercing also has a long and varied history, dating back to ancient times. There are mentions of body piercing in the Bible. In addition, it was a frequent practice of ancient Romans. Roman warriors often pierced their nipples, considering this to be a sign of strength and masculinity; it was also a practical measure, a way of attaching cloaks to the body.   Roman gladiators, who usually held the status of slaves, also underwent body-piercing, though as slaves they had little choice. Often gladiators would be subjected to genital piercing, primarily through the head of the penis. This was partially a protective measure, allowing the ringed penile tip to be tied close to the body during battle, protecting it from injury. But it was also a territorial measure, since they were considered property of their owners. Placement of a larger ring through the penile tip could also prevent sex, making it essentially a male chastity belt, to be removed at the discretion of the gladiator’s owner. Aztec and Mayan Indians were known to have pierced their lips as part of religious ritual, believing this brought them closer to their god. They also pierced the septum, believing this gave them a fierce, intimidating appearance during battle. Aztecs and Mayans were also fond of lip labrets, which were often made of precious metals and served highly decorative purposes. During medieval times the art of body piercing lost favour, regaining popularity during the Renaissance period. It enjoyed unprecedented popularity during the Victorian Era, due to the sexual pleasures it was known to enhance. Until recently, body-piercing, like tattooing, was primarily associated with fringe groups in western society. However, today it no longer exists solely in the realm of punk rock and fetish scenes. Nose-, nipple-, and navel- piercing is now common in contemporary western society, alongside the more traditional pierced ears and the less visible genital piercings. Diet and exercise—often used together—are another form of body modification. The diet industry is huge in western countries. Appetite suppressants, both prescription and over-the-counter types, are extremely popular. Fad diets such as the South Beach Diet or the Atkins Program attract and retain large numbers of followers. Health clubs and gyms are another large part of this industry, selling memberships which promise buyers a new way of life and a fit—and thin—future. To members of a society who desire this more than anything else, it is not a hard sell.   Excessive dieting can lead to life-threatening eating disorders. The primary disorders are anorexia nervosa and bulimia, and they primarily afflict women, mostly in their teens and twenties. Although â€Å"anorexia â€Å"itself literally means â€Å"loss of appetite,† this disease often has more to do with a denial of appetite rather than loss of desire for food. Its sufferers will go for extended periods of time without eating, or will eat just the barest amounts of food, to become an/or remain thin. The most tragic aspect of anorexia is that often the sufferer loses a sense of her own body, refusing to acknowledge that she has gone way beyond â€Å"thin†Ã¢â‚¬â€anorexics are often emaciated. Bulimia is a disorder which is characterized by ingestions of large amounts of food—binging—followed by a period of purging, to rid the body of the unwanted calories. Purging may be achieved by vomiting, either self-induced or through chemicals such as syrup of Ipecac. Excessive laxative use is also associated with this disorder. Often bulimics will have a low-to-normal body weight as compared to anorexics, but sufferers of both disorders face similar health problems due to electrolyte imbalance, nutritional deficiencies, and related complications. Susan Bordon sees eating disorders as complex, multi-layered disorders in which the sufferer sees her body as alien, as a threat to control, as an enemy. She also sees it as a gender/power issue and a protest the confines of femininity.   Exercise, on the other hand, be a way of actively asserting control instead of passively denying oneself. It can be argued that exercise is taken by some for the sake of exercise, but there is no doubt that it is also an activity that is undertaken to combat corporeal excesses and to exert control over the body. Some forms of exercise—for example, body-building and weight-lifting, can also be a form of exerting control without the concomitant existence of an eating disorder, and are more commonly undertaken by men, though women are involved in this as well. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. Surgical body modification is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. The procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Discussions of surgical body modification in this paper will focus primarily on elective surgery undertaken for purely cosmetic purposes, so that it may be explored and assessed as part of the larger societal trend towards achievement of physical perfection at any cost. Sander Gilman’s comprehensive body of research is well worth exploring, particularly two of his books: Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Raceland Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery. His works provide abroad and thorough base for any study of body modification, though his primary focus is on surgical enhancements. Yet while Gilman thoroughly addresses the subject of aesthetic surgery, the focus is on the surgery itself, as well as upon the need for it and what that need signifies. Discussion of the body itself is limited in Gilman’s work; it is seen only in terms of its potential for surgical alteration. In addition, other types of body modification—such as piercing, tattoos, weight-loss regimens, exercise—are only briefly covered in his work. While he speculates on the significance of aesthetic surgery thoughtfully and articulately, his ideas do not go beyond surgical issues (though, to be fair, they do not pretend to; heist very clear about the scope and limitations of his research). For broader looks at the concept of the body and the various modes of modification now prevalent in society, we can turn to other researchers. Much of the current literature seeks to approach the concept of the body from a different angle, focusing on the body itself. Many of these researchers find significance in the fact that focus on the body seems to be missing in much of the earlier literature, or, if not missing, submerged. Bryan Turner begins his book The Body and Society by immediately introducing the duality of the body, opening with what is at once seemingly simple yet very complex statement: â€Å"There is an obvious and prominent fact about human beings: they have bodies and they are bodies (Turner 1996, 37). He goes on to point out that despite this very obvious fact, there is a seeming lack of information about the body in sociology; he explains that beyond a wealth of historical and mathematical data, there is really no actual investigation of the bodying and of itself—or, rather, that this information is there, but deeply encoded: â€Å"in writing about sociology’s neglect of the body, it may be more exact to refer to this negligence as submergence rather than absence, since the body in sociological theory has had a furtive, secret history rather than no history at all (Turner 1996, 63). Joanne Entwisted cites Turner several times in her own work, though her perspective is clearly focused on the significance of clothing and fashion. In â€Å"The Dressed Body,† she addresses, as the title of her essay suggests, the symbolic meaning of clothing. She points out that there is an abundance of straightforward description concerning the of style: colours, hemlines, cut, accessories—but this rarely goes beyond details of style. There is very little literature that looks at the very subtle and complex relationship between the body and clothing. Since social norms demand that bodies must (almost)always be dressed, she finds this lack telling: â€Å"dress is fundamental to micro social order and the exposure of naked flesh is, potentially at least, disruptive of social order† (Entwisted 2001, 33-34). In fact, Entwisted, like many of her contemporaries, views the body as an entity in and of itself, asserting that â€Å"we experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression. (Entwisted 2000, 138). Chris Shilling echoes both Turner and Entwisted about the seeming lack of focus on the body itself. However, Shilling points out that this is now changing, and that academic interest in the body itself is steadily growing: â€Å"the sociology of the body has emerged as a distinct area of study, and it has even been suggested that the body should serve as inorganizing principle for sociology (Shilling 1993, 1). As for what has brought about this new and much-needed shift in perspective, Shilling and others agree that it seems based on conflict. It is perhaps Shilling who best describes the paradox at the core of this change: â€Å"We now have the means to exert an unprecedented degree of control over bodies, yet we are also living in an age which has thrown into radical doubt our knowledge of what bodies are and how we should control them (Shilling 1993, 3). This paradox is a recurring theme in the literature, both in the writings about the body as well as the multitudinous passages about the various procedures to which it is subjected to in today’s world. There is, however, a consensus that surgery is the most dramatic form of body modification—in particular, cosmetic surgery (Gilman consistently refers to it as â€Å"aesthetic surgery,† which seems much softer and much more positive term). Cosmetic surgery for most of these researchers includes any kind of surgical enhancement that is performed solely for aesthetic ends, although the definition of â€Å"aesthetic† can vary widely. Other types of surgeries are considered as well, including those involving gender modification. However, most of the literature studied for this paper has tended to focus on the more mainstream applications of aesthetic surgery. Transsexual operations, and the many issues therein, are acknowledged by virtually all researchers, but they are not explored in any depth in the sources considered for this paper. Considering the many procedural and ethical issues involved in transgender procedures, this is not surprising. It is a rapidly changing surgical sub-specialty, and one with wide-ranging sociological and psychological issues, none of which can be adequately dealt with in footnote to a more general piece of research. Indeed, the body seems to have become a thing separate from the self, continual work-in-progress with a growing number of options and â€Å"enhancements† to choose from. The theme of body-as-object is echoed throughout the current sociological literature and in other disciplines as well. Speaking of the body as art, Lea Vergie posits that The body is being used as an art language by an ever-greater number of contemporary painters and sculptors. It always involves, for example loss of personal identity, a refusal to allow the sense of reality to invade and control the sphere of the emotions, and a romantic rebellion against dependence upon both people and things (Vergie 2000, 1). Entwisted explores the relationship between the body and societal pressures, asserting that there are â€Å"two bodies: the physical body and the social body† (2001, 37). To understand the role of dress, she further notes, â€Å"requires adopting an approach which acknowledges the body as a social entity and dress as the outcome of both social factors and individual actions† (2001, 48). Entwistle explains that in contemporary culture, the body has become the â€Å"site of identity†: â€Å"We experience our bodies as separate from others and increasingly we identify with our bodies as containers of our identities and places of personal expression† (Entwistle 2000,138). However, when we consider that society pressures us to achieve a single, consistent ideal of perfection, it seems a contradiction to accept the concept of body as a vehicle for personal expression. What personal expression is there in sameness? Vergine reconciles this seeming contradiction by perceiving the body as a vehicle for art and language: The use of the body as a language has returned to the scene of the world around us in new and different forms, and it speaks through altered declinations. By way of tattoos, piercings, and citations of tribalism. Through manipulations of its organs. The instrument that speaks and communicates without the word, or sounds, or drawings. The body as a vehicle, once again, for declaring opposition to the dominant culture, but also of desperate conformism. (Vergine 2001, 289). Shilling explores the concept of the body as machine, particularly in the world of sports: â€Å"The ‘body as machine’ is not merely a medical image, however; one of the areas in which the body is most commonly perceived and treated in this way is in the sphere of sport† (Shilling1993, 37). He explains that the vocabulary used in the field of sports serves to depersonalize the body, to transform it into an object whose sole purpose is optimum performance: â€Å"the body has come to be seen ‘as a means to an enda factor of output and production†¦as a machine with the job of producing the maximum work and energy’ (Shilling 1993, 37). Turner also addresses the concept of body mutilation as an attempt to assert control in a chaotic world, relating it back to Christianity. He describes the body as â€Å"a genuine object of a sociology of knowledge.† (Turner 1996, 64). He explains that the Western world customarily treats the body as â€Å"the seat of unreason, passion and desire,† and goes on to discuss the battle of the flesh with the spirit: â€Å"flesh was the symbol of moral corruption which threatened the order of the world: the flesh had to be subdued by disciplines, especially by the regimen of diet and abstinence† (Turner 1996, 64). The concept of chaos is another recurrent theme in recent discourse nobody modification. Entwistle sees fashion as one way in which individuals attempt to assert control over the ever-increasing chaos of today’s world† â€Å"If nakedness is unruly and disruptive, this would seem to indicate that dress is a fundamental aspect of micro social order â€Å"she asserts (2001, 35). This is echoed by Armando Favazza in Bodies Under Siege: Self-mutilation and Body Modification in Culture and Psychiatry. â€Å"Chaos is the greatest threat to the stability of the universe,† he writes (1996, 231). He goes on to explain how we need social stability taco-exist, that it gives us the framework for appropriate sexual behaviour, the ability to recognize and negotiate among various social hierarchies, and the tools necessary to successfully make the transition from childhood into mature adulthood. â€Å"The alteration or destruction of body tissue† asserts Favazza, â€Å"helps to establish control of things and to preserve the social order† (1996, 231). Favazza sees self-mutilation as an attempt on the part of the self-mutilator to control the chaotic world around him or her. He also points out that self-mutilation is often culturally sanctioned. Whether or not a practice falls under the category of â€Å"mutilation,† according to Favazza, depends on whether there is a change to or eradication of body tissue. Clearly tattooing, scarification, body-piercing and surgery meet this criterion. This focus on the body is particularly significant, as Shilling points out, questioning why, â€Å"at a time when our health is threatened increasingly by global dangers, we are exhorted ever more to take individual responsibility for our bodies by engaging in strict self-care regimes† (Shilling 1993, 5). As he and other researchers point out, our inability to control outer chaos seems to have resulted in our focusing on our bodies as disparate parts of ourselves and of our universe: this is one small way we can assert control, or at least feel as though we are. Surgical modification can be called many names, among them: plastic surgery; reconstructive surgery; or, as Sander Gilman prefers to refer to it: aesthetic surgery. Indeed, this type of surgery includes a wide variety of procedures, from surgically correcting a birth deform such as a cleft palate, to disfigurements due to accident or injuryor from a subtle removal of â€Å"crows’ lines† or other signs of age, to more dramatic adjustments to a too-large nose or an unacceptably sharp chin. The most extreme result of this type of surgery involves gender modification. One point that should be reiterated here is that surgical body modification is unique. It is different from most other forms in that it generally implies a level of secrecy that the others do not. Both the procedure and the recuperation period that follows both take place behind closed doors, sometimes even in foreign lands. Furthermore, the reappearance of the individual after the procedure is not accompanied by any sort of fanfare; there is an implicit assumption that the individual has always appeared thus, or if the change is dramatic, that it is not to be spoken of. Sander Gilman offers the most comprehensive history of aesthetic surgery, along with a broad and varied perspective. In his books Creating Beauty to Cure the Soul: Race and Psychology in the Shaping of Aesthetic Surgery and Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he addresses the complex reasons behind the growth of aesthetic surgery and explores its significance and complexity. Ianthe first volume, he clearly focuses on it primarily as a form of psychotherapy. The second work is rich in historical detail and thoroughly traces the development of aesthetic surgery from its earliest days to modern times. Gilman follows the development of aesthetic surgery over the course of the nineteenth century, and notes that during this time â€Å"the idea that one: could cure the illness of the character or of the psyche through the altering of the body is introduced within specific ideas of what is beautiful or ugly (1998, 7). He also asserts that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness is directly related to the fact that today, the view of aesthetic surgery as a type of psychotherapy is gradually becoming accepted. According to Gilman, â€Å"psychotherapy and aesthetic surgery are closely intertwined in terms of their explanatory models† (1998, 11). He explains that the lessening of the stigma of mental illness has resulted in healthier attitudes towards psychotherapeutic interventions well as a growing acceptance of aesthetic surgery, and he discusses the issue from a variety of viewpoints: the patient, the physician, society at large. Addressing the concept that â€Å"happiness† is the primary motivation that spurs individuals to pursue this avenue of change, he is careful to study the various definitions people offer for â€Å"happiness† and discusses these within the larger societal context. â€Å"Aesthetic surgeons operate on the body to heal the psyche,† asserts Gilman. â€Å"Being unhappy is identified in Western culture with being sick. In our estimation only, the physician can truly ‘cure’ our spirits and our souls’ â€Å"(1998, 25). According to Gilman, it was during the Enlightenment that the concept of happiness ceased to be one of a collective morality. During this period, he writes, â€Å"the hygiene of the body became the hygiene of the spirit and that of the state† (1999, 21). Today, he asserts, the â€Å"pursuit of happiness† is no longer a collective goal but an individual desire† (1998, 27). This equating of unhappiness with pain is a concept that began to be formulated in the second half of the nineteenth century and is closely tied to social and cultural attitudes toward the body and the blurring of the distinction between â€Å"somatic and mental pain,† as he phrases it. Indeed, it is remarkable how often aesthetic surgeons cite â€Å"happiness â€Å"as the goal of the surgery. â€Å"Happiness† for aesthetic surgeons is utilitarian notion of happiness, like that espoused by John Stuart Mill, who placed the idea of happiness within the definition of individual autonomy Happiness, the central goal of aesthetic surgery, is defined in terms of the autonomy of the individual to transform him- or herself (Gilman 1999, 18). In Making the Body Beautiful: A Cultural History of Aesthetic Surgery, he states that â€Å"body imagery follows the lines of political and cultural power,† and he offers a clear, in-depth history of aesthetic surgery in the western world, carefully noting its connection to social, political and technological changes (Gilman 1999, 105). He also carefully traces the history of aesthetic surgery, explaining its strong affiliation with syphilis. Apparently, one of the results of syphilitic infection was damage to the nose, and that attempts to surgically reconstruct the nose were therefore strongly and inextricably tied to venereal disease and the concomitant loose morality. The association made between nose surgery and syphilis was so deeply ingrained that it continued to taint aesthetic nose surgery for many years: â€Å"The rise of aesthetic surgery at the end of the sixteenth century is rooted in the appearance of epidemic syphilis. Syphilis was a highly stigmatizing disease from its initial appearance at the close of the fifteenth century† (Gilman 1999, 10). Gilman also discusses the impact of important historical events on the development of surgery in general and on reconstructive surgery in particular; he describes the effect of the American and French Revolution and the American Civil War on body image and on the role of aesthetic surgery in restructuring it. Significant changes in aesthetic surgery took place following the upheaval that resulted from these political revolutions. In a society thus destabilized after years of repression, radical changes in thinking occurred, including changing concepts of the body: â€Å"It is not that the reconstructed body was invented at the end of the nineteenth century,† explains Gilman, â€Å"but rather that questions about the ability of the individual to be transformed, which had been articulated as social or political in the context of the state, came to be defined as biological and medical†(1999, 19). Later developments, such as globalization, have had a huge impact on aesthetic surgery. For reasons of privacy, availability, and/or cost, many people will travel to foreign surgery sites. Since they often spend considerable amounts of time in these locations, they often end up bolstering the economy as tourists, hence spurring an entirely new and thriving industry of medical tourism. Gilman describes medical tourism as a thriving business due to the widespread and increasing popularity of elective aesthetic surgery. â€Å"You can become someone new and better by altering the body,† Gilman tells us as he plunges into a lengthy examination of the role body modification has played in society. He begins by discussing the assimilation of foreigners into society, and the steps to which people will go to achieve the goal of â€Å"fitting in† or â€Å"passing† for something they are not: â€Å"the transformation of the individual, such as the immigrant, into a healthy member of the new polis† (Gilman 1999, 20). According to Gilman, happiness may be sought through aesthetic surgery because it offers individuals the opportunity to redefine themselves. Categories of inclusion and exclusion, whether tacit or broadly delineated, impact strongly on societal hierarchies. â€Å"Happiness in this instance exists in crossing the boundary separating one category from another,† explains Gilman. â€Å"It is rooted in the necessary creation of arbitrary demarcations between the perceived reality of the self and the ideal category into which one desires to move† (Gilman 1999, 22). The categories are defined so that there is no question about which category is most beneficial. Of course, the advantages of each constructed category are subject to change as society changes. The ideal is to be to move from the negative category to the positive category; the â€Å"catch† is that categories are subject to frequent change. Gilman and other researchers refer to â€Å"the discourse of ‘passing.’ â€Å"This discourse came into existence during the racially charged nineteenth century, and is, according to Gilman, â€Å"the ver